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INTRODUCTION
Humans’ cardiovascular health is fundamental for the normal functioning of the whole body. The rate at which cardiovascular diseases are increasing is a matter of great concern to public health. This is because cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, myocardial infarction, chronic heart diseases, coronary artery disease, arrhythmia, atherosclerosis, stroke among others, have been described as the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide since 2018 (Nystoriak & Bhatnagar, 2018).
Several risk factors predispose an individual to cardiovascular diseases, which include a sedentary lifestyle and physical inactivity. Currently, these are known as the major risk factors that are associated with the development and progression of cardiovascular health outcomes (Nystoriak & Bhatnagar, 2018). However, regular exercise has been known to be associated with increased health benefits in humans, and play important role in improving cardiovascular health (Nystoriak & Bhatnagar, 2018). Lots of studies on cardiovascular diseases have reported that physically active individuals normally have increased life expectancy and thus reduce mortality rates (Nystoriak & Bhatnagar, 2018; Eijsvogels et al., 2016; Benjamin et al., 2017; CDC, 2015; Roth et al., 2015). In addition, levels of the death rate due to hypertension and hyperlipidemia about gender have been attributed to the level of fitness (Nystoriak & Bhatnagar, 2018). Some studies have also attributed increased levels of physical activity with improved markers of inflammation, thus lowering the risk associated with developing heart failure and longevity among patients with coronary artery disease (Nystoriak & Bhatnagar, 2018; Pinckard et al., 2019).
Studies have suggested that improvement in the fitness level in men and women would result in better cardiovascular health outcomes. Cardiovascular diseases have also been attributed to body mass index (BMI) (Nystoriak & Bhatnagar, 2018; Pinckard et al., 2019). Increased body mass index is associated with obesity, and obesity results in poor health conditions such as the high risk of cardiovascular diseases (such as hypertension, myocardial infarction, chronic heart diseases, coronary artery disease, arrhythmia, atherosclerosis, stroke among others), type 2 diabetes mellitus, cancer, and death (Pinckard et al., 2019). Studies have also shown that obese individuals are ten times more likely to develop cardiovascular diseases than individuals within the healthy weight range (Pinckard et al., 2019). Physical inactivity and a sedentary lifestyle are factors that predispose an individual to become obese. Hence, regular exercise can help an individual to stay within a healthy weight range, by decreasing body mass and adipose tissues, thereby reducing the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases (Pinckard et al., 2019).
Regular exercise has known to be associated with better functioning of the cardiovascular system, by helping the body to achieve a homeostatic state through adaptation to the heart and vascular system, and also improves longevity (Pinckard et al., 2019; Eijsvogels et al., 2016). Exercise improves resting heart rate, blood pressures, and atherogenic markers, and increases physiological cardiac hypertrophy (Cium?rnean et al., 2021; Pinckard et al., 2019) Studies have reported that regular exercise reduces stress on the heart and improves cardiovascular function in healthy and diseased individuals (Cium?rnean et al., 2021; Pinckard et al., 2019). Although several studies have reported that physical activity and exercise improves cardiorespiratory fitness, the mechanism of action of this process is yet to be understood (Nystoriak & Bhatnagar, 2018)
There are several mechanisms in which exercise improves cardiovascular health. One of the major changes is by inducing several changes in the whole body, which affects different cells, tissues, and organs of the cardiovascular system (Pinckard et al., 2019). These changes occur as the result of high metabolic demand and to achieve the homeostatic function of the cardiovascular system. This influence induced by exercise affects other cellular adaptation in all parts of the human body (Pinckard et al., 2019). Exercise is also responsible for increasing mitochondrial biogenesis in adipocytes, skeletal muscle myocytes, cardiomyocytes and as well as increasing aerobic respiration within these tissues (Crisafulli et al., 2015). Engaging in exercising activities has been associated with improving oxygen delivery to the whole body by the means of vasodilation and angiogenesis. These activities lead to the protection against ischemia-reperfusion injury in the heart (Pinckard et al., 2019). Thereby improving the anti-inflammatory effect through the myokines released from skeletal muscles that benefit the cardiovascular system (Pinckard et al., 2019).
According to Pinckard et al. physical exercise is therapeutic for patients with cardiovascular diseases (Pinckard et al., 2019). He also suggested that biogenesis and fatty acid oxidation are the mechanisms exercise uses to induce dilation of blood vessels causing improved myocardial perfusion, and reduction of inflammation by protecting the development of atherosclerosis (Pinckard et al., 2019). Also, the Fiuza-Luces et al. review indicated that regular exercise improves vasculature and induces cardioprotection against ischemia-reperfusion injury (Fiuza-Luces et al, 2018).
AIM
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
RESEARCH PROBLEM
The rate at which cardiovascular diseases are increasing is a matter of great concern to public health. This is because cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, myocardial infarction, chronic heart diseases, coronary artery disease, arrhythmia, atherosclerosis, stroke among others, have been described as the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide about three years ago (Nystoriak & Bhatnagar, 2018; Pinckard et al., 2019). Lots of studies on cardiovascular diseases have reported that physically active individuals normally have increased life expectancy and thus reduce mortality rates (Nystoriak & Bhatnagar, 2018; Eijsvogels et al., 2016; Benjamin et al., 2017; CDC, 2015; Roth et al., 2015). There is a need to investigate the effect of exercise on cardiovascular health to add more to knowledge.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Several studies have shown that cardiovascular diseases are the most known non-communicable disease with the highest mortality rate (Nystoriak & Bhatnagar, 2018; Pinckard et al., 2019). Other studies have shown that exercise is beneficial in that it improves vasculature and induces cardioprotection against ischemia-reperfusion injury, induces dilation of blood vessels causing improved myocardial perfusion, and reduction of inflammation by protecting the development of atherosclerosis (Pinckard et al., 2019; Fiuza-Luces et al, 2018). Therefore, it is important to study the various effects exercise induces on cardiovascular health.
METHODOLOGY
ANALYSIS
The following will be used for analysis in this review, they are; cluster analysis (CA) and/or factor analysis (FA), and/or principal component analysis (PCA). The results will be presented as odds ratios (OR).
RISK ASSESSMENT
The risk assessment conducted for this project is provided in the table below:
Table 1: Risk assessment
Risk
Impact
Mitigation Plan
Inability to meet the deadline
Low
Get an extension from the supervisor in due time
Inability to get required process inputs, skill, and manpower
Moderate
Refer to municipalities and research institutes for help
Inability to properly develop the process set up
High
Refer to your supervisor for help
Insufficient data
Refer to journals and textbooks for help
SCHEDULE
Table 2: Project Plan
Task Name
Start Date
End Date
Duration (Days)
Initial Research
15/01/2022
29/01/2022
14
Proposal
06/02/2022
21
Introduction Chapter
18/03/2022
23/03/2022
5
Literature Review Chapter
20/04/2022
24
Methodology Chapter
02/05/2022
12
Presentation 1
02/07/2022
10/07/2022
8
Analysis
24/07/2022
Evaluation of Gotten Results
01/08/2022
7
Discussion Chapter
11/08/2022
10
Evaluation Chapter
16/08/2022
Conclusion Chapter
18/08/2022
2
Project Management Chapter
20/08/2022
Abstract and Report compilation
22/08/2022
Report Proofreading
01/09/2022
Presentation 2
11/09/2022
1
REFERENCES
Benjamin, E.J., Blaha, M.J, Chiuve, S.E, Cushman, M., Das, S.R., Deo, R. (2017) Heart disease and stroke statistics-2017 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 135:146–603.
CDC, N. (2015). Underlying Cause of Death 1999-2013 on CDC WONDER Online Database, Released 2015. Data are From the Multiple Cause of Death Files, 1999-2013, as Compiled From Data Provided by the 57 Vital Statistics Jurisdictions Through the Vital Statistics Cooperative Program (Accessed Feb. 3, 2015).
Cium?rnean, L., Milaciu, M. V., Negrean, V., Or??an, O. H., Vesa, S. C., S?l?gean, O., Ilu?, S., & Vlaicu, S. I. (2021). Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Physical Activity for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases in the Elderly. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(1), 207. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010207
Crisafulli, A., Pagliaro, P., Cohen-Solal, A., & Coats, A. J. (2015). Effects of physical exercise on cardiovascular diseases: Biochemical, cellular, and organ effects. In BioMed Research International (Vol. 2015). Hindawi Publishing Corporation. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/853632
Eijsvogels, T. M. H., Molossi, S., Lee, D.-C., Emery, M. S., & Thompson, P. D. (2016). THE PRESENT AND FUTURE Exercise at the Extremes The Amount of Exercise to Reduce Cardiovascular Events.
Fiuza-Luces, C., Santos-Lozano, A., Joyner, M., Carrera-Bastos, P., Picazo, O., Zugaza, J. L., Izquierdo, M., Ruilope, L. M., & Lucia, A. (2018). Exercise benefits in cardiovascular disease: beyond attenuation of traditional risk factors. In Nature Reviews Cardiology (Vol. 15, Issue 12, pp. 731–743). Nature Publishing Group. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41569-018-0065-1
Nystoriak, M. A., & Bhatnagar, A. (2018). Cardiovascular Effects and Benefits of Exercise. In Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine (Vol. 5). Frontiers Media S.A. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2018.00135
Pinckard, K., Baskin, K. K., & Stanford, K. I. (2019). Effects of Exercise to Improve Cardiovascular Health. In Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine. 6: 1-12
Roth, G.A., Forouzanfar, M.H., Moran, A.E., Barber, R., Nguyen, G., Feigin, V.L (2015). Demographic and epidemiologic drivers of global cardiovascular mortality. N Engl J Med. 372:1333–41.
Last updated: Jan 25, 2022 04:51 PM
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